[Surgical
instruments from Sudheer's site.]
Kanada - 6th Century B.C. Atomic Theory of Matter - These Sutras were a of science and philosophy. Their subject was the atomic theory of matter. On reading these Sutras we find that Kanada's atomic theory was far more advanced than formulated later by the Greek philosophers, Democritus and Leucippus.
Since ancient times Indian philosophers believed that except Akash (ether), all other elements were physically palpable and hence comprised miniscule particles of matter. The last miniscule particle of matter which could not be subdivided further was termed Parmanu. The word Parmanu is a combination of Param, meaning beyond, and any meaning atom. Thus the term Parmanu is suggestive of the possibility that, at least at an abstract level Indian philosophers in ancient times had conceived the possibility of splitting an atom which, as we know today, is the source of atomic energy. This Indian concept of the atom was developed independently and prior to the development of the idea in the Greco-Roman world.
Indian ideas about chemistry grew by experimentation. The areas of application of the principle of chemistry were: the smelting of metals, the distillation of perfumes and fragrant ointments, the making of dyes and pigments, the extraction of sugar, etc.
smelting of rust-proof iron
Medical Science was one area were surprising advances had been made in ancient times in India. Specifically these advances were in the areas of plastic surgery, extraction of catracts, dental surgery, etc.
Eye surgery - OPHTHALMIC SURGERY: Shushruta specialised in ophthalmic surgery (extraction of Cataracts). A typically operation performed by Shushruta for removing cataracts
PLASTIC SURGERY: Perhaps the greatest contribution of Shushruta was the operation of rhinoplasty (restoration of a mutilated nose by plastic surgery).
[Surgical
instruments from Sudheer's site.]
Medicine -
AYURVEDA-THE SCIENCE OF LONGEVITY It means 'the science of living' (longevity). Ayu means life and Veda means knowledge.
According to Charaka, a noted physician (doctor) who lived in ancient India about 2,000 years ago: "A physician who fails to enter the body of a patient with the lamp of knowledge and understanding can never treat diseases. He should first study all the factors, including environment, which influence a patient's disease, and then prescribe treatment. It is more important to prevent the occurrence of disease than to seek a cure."
These remarks were made 20 centuries ago. Charaka was the first physician to present the concept of digestion, metabolism, and immunity.
Further, he believed that illness is caused when the balance in a human body is disturbed. To restore the balance he prescribed (told the person to take) medicinal drugs.
Charaka also knew the fundamentals of genetics. For instance, he knew the factors determining the sex of a child. A genetic defect in a child, like lameness or blindness, he said, was not due to any defect in the mother or the father, but in the ovum or sperm of the parents which is today an accepted fact.
Under the guidance of the ancient physician Atreya, another physician named Agnivesa had written an encyclopedia of medicine in the eighth century B.C. However, it was only when Charaka revised this writing that it gained popularity and came to be famous. For two millennia (2,000 years) it remained a standard work on the subject and was translated into many foreign languages, including Arabic and Latin.
YOGA - HEALTH OF THE BODY AND MIND
Yoga is a system of exercises for physical and mental health. The tradition of Yoga has been kept alive by ascetics and hermits (people who go away from society to live very poorly by themselves). Yoga had special importance for hermits who roamed from place to place, meditating.
It was as early as the 2nd century B.C. or 2100 years ago that the fundamentals of Yoga were systematically presented. The person who is credited with having done this is Patanjali. According to Patanjali, within the human body there are channels and centers of energy. If these are tapped, the energy hidden in the body can be released. The release of this energy enables the body to have many powers which are normally beyond its ability.
Astronomy - Astronomy is one area which has fascinated all mankind from the beginnings of history. In India the first references to astronomy are to be found in the Rig Veda which is dated around 2000 B.C. Vedic Aryans worshipped the Sun, Stars and Comets as gods and goddesses. Astronomy was then interwoven with astrology (telling the future and learning about good and bad luck). Since ancient times Indians have involved the planets with human's fortunes. For example, some planets, like Saturn and Mars, were considered bad luck.
In the working out of horoscopes (called Janmakundali), the position of the Navagrahas, nine planets plus Rahu and Ketu (mythical demons, evil forces) was considered. The Janmakundali was a complex mixture of science and dogma.
The Calculation of Eclipses And The Earth's Circumference
In Indian languages, the science of Astronomy is today called Khagola-shastra. The word Khagola perhaps is derived from the famous astronomical observatory at the University of Nalanda which was called Khagola. It was at Khagola that the famous 5th century Indian Astronomer Aryabhatta studied and extended the subject.
Indian astronomers also propounded (first had) the theory that the earth was a sphere (shaped like a ball). Aryabhatta was the first one to have propounded this theory in the 5th century. Another Indian astronomer, Brahmagupta estimated (made an educated guess) in the 7th century that the circumference of (distance around) the earth was about 22,400 miles (36,000 kms) as the earth's circumference. It comes quite close to the actual circumference known today as about 24,000 miles.
THE HELIOCENTERIC (sun as the center of galaxy) THEORY OF GRAVITATION
Many Indian astronomers had formulated ideas about gravity and gravitation. Brahmagupta, in the 7th century had said about gravity that "Bodies fall towards the earth as it is in the nature of the earth to attract bodies, just as it is in the nature of water to flow". About a hundred years before Brahmagupta, another astronomer, Varahamihira had claimed for the first time perhaps that there should be a force which might be keeping bodies stuck to the earth, and also keeping heavenly bodies in their determined places. Thus the concept of the existence of some tractive force that governs the falling of objects to the earth and their remaining stationary after having once fallen; as also determining the positions which heavenly bodies occupy, was recognised.
It was also recognised that this force is a "tractive" force. Thus the fact that the character of this force was of attraction was also recognised. This apart, it seems that the function of attracting heavenly bodies was attributed to the sun.
Many ancient Indian astronomers have also referred to the concept of heliocentrism (sun as the center of galaxy) . But it has to be conceded that the heliocentric theory of gravitation was also developed in ancient times (i.e. around 500 B.C.) by Greek astronomers. This idea could have existed in India before the Greek astronomers because in Vedic literature the Sun is referred to as the 'centre of spheres'. The Vedas are dated around 3000 B.C. to 1000 B.C. Thus the heliocentric idea could have existed in a rough form in the days of the Rig Veda and was refined further by astronomers of a later age.
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