War (continued)
Part IV: Battlefield Strategies and the Use of Animals in War
Without the camel and the horse, Muslim armies could not have achieved so many victories and expanded their empires so much. Likewise, without the horses of their enemies, they might never have been defeated by invaders.
A. Horses
1. Raids and Surprise Attacks
"The Arabian horse was primarily an instrument of war, as were horses in general in most societies of the time. A well-mounted Bedouin could attack an enemy tribe and capture their herds of sheep, camels and goats, adding to the wealth of their own tribe. Such a raid was only successful if the aggressors could attack with surprise and speed and make good their escape. Mares (female horse) were the best mounts for raiding parties, as they would not nicker (a horse's sound) to the enemy tribe's horses, warning of their approach. The best war mares exhibited great courage in battle, taking the charges and the spear thrusts without giving ground. Speed and endurance (not becoming exhausted easily, not quitting) were essential as well, for the raids were often carried out far from the home camp, family and children." [From Arabian Home Page]
"Teach your sons the art of swimming, sharp shooting, and horseback riding," said Omar Ibn Al Khattab, the second Caliph who ruled from 634 to 644. Riding horses and shooting of the bow were important parts of military training for young Muslim men.
2. Battlefield Warfare
Many battles took place on broad fields. The cavalry (soldiers on horseback) often charged and used long swords or lances to combat their enemies. The infantry (foot soldiers) most often used bow and arrow from a distance, and then swords in close hand-to-hand combat.
To help coordinate the battle, the general would give signals to parts of the army through horns and drums, and through flags. Uniforms became important so that the soldiers could tell their enemies from their allies (friends, people who fight on the same side).
Above, Turkish armies attack - Image of a battle between Khusraw and Bahram Chubin in battle (Tabriz, 1481). Topkapi Collection, Bilkent Univ. image.
3. Mongol Invaders and the Horse
But it was the Mongol invaders who attacked the Muslim Empire that used their horses to their best advantage. Each warrior traveled with up to ten horses, allowing the army to cover up to 100 miles a day! This was an amazing distance for the Middle Ages, and rarely approached again until mechanized (machine) warfare appeared in the 20th century. An army of 95,000 Mongol warriors might travel with one million horses.
Photo of Mongolia's Steppes
courtesy of Frenchcar Magazine
Mongol tactics took advantage of mobility (fast movement). They could shoot charging (going ahead) or retreating (running away). They tried to catch their enemies at a disadvantage and used feints (fake-outs) and traps to get enemies out of position or into a panic. Heavy enemy cavalry were tricked into a charge and the Mongols would fall back while shooting. Once the enemy tired, the Mongols turned and counterattacked. The Mongols showered the dismounted (not on their horses) enemies with arrows or attacked them with lances. They shot the horses out from under the mounted enemies and then attacked them with swords or lances.
In the 1200s, Mongol armies destroyed much of the Muslim Empires in the east. They conquered and completely destroyed the Abbasid capital of Baghdad in 1258, and then attacked Syria.
One strategy they used was intimidation (causing fear) . If a city surrendered, the people would be treated fairly well. But if they decided to fight, the city would be destroyed and the inhabitants (people who lived there) would be killed or sold into slavery.
The Mongols were finally stopped from further advances by the Egyptian Mamluk Muslim Empire.
B. Camels
Camels were used in war as well as for transportation! At the time of the Prophet Muhammad, most attacks were made on camels rather than horses. See image below.
Click on the image to see the full-size image. The Expedition to Revan, Shahin-Shah-nama ('Book of the King of Kings'). Istanbul, 1595-7. Topkapi Collection (Bilkent University image).
C. Elephants
As Islam expanded eastward into India, elephants became part of battle strategy. They were incredibly strong and could be used to pull down the walls of forts.
The Eckstein Shahnama (Epic of Kings), Iran, probably Qazwin, dated 1583 AD, in Persian. [SamFogg rare books site, copyright.]
War elephants even wore armor!
See a photo of an Indian war elephant in armor, 18th century, The Royal Armouries, London.
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War in Miniature Paintings: The following are Turkish miniatures (mostly of the Topkapi Collection) showing battle scenes:
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Go to Page One: War (Introduction) and Weapons
Go to Page Two: More Weapons
Go to Page Three: Siege Weapons
This is Page Four: Battlefield Strategies and Animals in War
Go to Page Five: New Weapons and Fire Weapons and Cannons and Guns
Go to Page Six: Armor
Go to Page Seven: Castles and Forts
Go to Page Eight: Important Wars
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